Transactional sex in humanitarian settings: A comparative analysis of livelihood and demographic predictors

Michael Kunnuji, Brian Kanaahe, Connor Roth, Funsho Bukoye, Doreen Atukunda, Simbiat Alayande, Emily Schaub, Adenike Esiet, Heather Marlow, Chimaraoke Izugbara

Abstract

Millions of people have been displaced within or outside their countries. Disruptions associated with displacement often lead to transactional sex with dire social, sexual and reproductive health implications. A common driver of transactional sex is food insecurity among refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs), yet IDP/refugee settings offer an opportunity for females to challenge and renegotiate gender norms and exercise greater control over their lives and sexuality. We compared predictors of transactional sex across humanitarian settings and found them to be significantly different. Among IDPs, the likelihood of transactional sex reduces with having access to food ration and education, but increases with having ‘other sources’ of income. Among refugees, transactional sex likelihood reduces with having either/both parent(s) alive but increases with working for money. Hence, multiple factors drive transactional sex in different contexts. Protecting women in humanitarian situations from the risks of transactional sex requires an understanding of these differences.

Full Text:

PDF

References

UNHCR. UNHCR Mid-Year Trends 2022. United Nations

High Commissioner for Refugee (UNHCR);

:28.

De Vriese M. Refugee Livelihoods: A Review of the

Evidence. United Nations High Commissioner for

Refugees; 2006:53.

Hatayama M. ICTs and Livelihood Supports of Refugees and

IDPs. Institute of Development Studies; 2018.

Freccero J, Biswas D, Whiting A, Alrabe K and Seelinger

KT. Sexual exploitation of unaccompanied migrant

and refugee boys in Greece: Approaches to

prevention. PLOS Med. 2017;14(11):e1002438.

Ganle JK, Amoako D, Baatiema L and Ibrahim M. Risky

sexual behaviour and contraceptive use in contexts

of displacement: insights from a cross-sectional

survey of female adolescent refugees in Ghana. Int

J Equity Health. 2019;18(1):127.

Stark L, Seff I, Assezenew A, Eoomkham J, Falb K and

Ssewamala FM. Effects of a Social Empowerment

Intervention on Economic Vulnerability for

Adolescent Refugee Girls in Ethiopia. J Adolesc

Health. 2018;62(1): S15-S20.

Kahn C, Engvall MA, Heidari S, Smith MD and Hilhorst D.

Rethinking Transactional Sex in Humanitarian

Settings: Reflections for the way forward. Bliss.

Published February 27, 2022. Accessed January 6,

https://bliss8543.wpcomstaging.com/2022/02/27/re

thinking-transactional-sex-in-humanitarian

settings-reflections-for-the-way-forward/

Kunnuji M. Basic deprivation and involvement in risky

sexual behaviour among out-of-school young

people in a Lagos slum. Cult Health Sex.

;16(7):727-740.

Njoku ET and Akintayo J. Sex for survival: Terrorism,

poverty and sexual violence in north-eastern

Nigeria. South Afr J Int Aff. 2021;28(2):285-303.

Tan SE and Kuschminder K. Migrant experiences of

sexual and gender based violence: a critical

interpretative

synthesis.

;18(1):68.

Glob

Health.

Vu A, Adam A and Wirtz A. The Prevalence of Sexual

Violence among Female Refugees in Complex

Humanitarian Emergencies: a Systematic Review

and Meta-analysis. PLoS Curr. Published online

Doi:

1371/currents.dis.835f10778fd80ae031aac12d3

b533ca7

Formson C and Hilhorst D. The many faces of

transactional sex: Women’s agency, livelihoods and

risk factors in humanitarian contexts: A literature

review. Published online 2016.

Chatterji M, Murray N, London D and Anglewicz P. The

factors influencing transactional sex among young

men and women in 12 sub‐Saharan African

countries. Biodemography Soc Biol. 2005;52(1

:56-72. doi:10.1080/19485565.2002.9989099

Mootz JJ, Odejimi OA and Bhattacharya A. Transactional

sex work and HIV among women in conflict

affected Northeastern Uganda: a population-based

study. Confl Health. 2022;16(1):8.

Wamoyi J, Fenwick A, Urassa M, Zaba B and Stones W.

“Women’s Bodies are Shops”: Beliefs About

Transactional

Sex

and

Implications

for

Understanding Gender Power and HIV Prevention

in Tanzania. Arch Sex Behav. 2011;40(1):5-15.

Wamoyi J, Heise L, Meiksin R, Kyegombe N, Nyato D

and Buller AM. Is transactional sex exploitative? A

social norms perspective, with implications for

interventions with adolescent girls and young

women in Tanzania. Fielding-Miller RK, ed. PLOS

ONE. 2019;14(4): e0214366.

McLean H. Gender and power-structures in refugee

camps:

social

movements.

changes

Published

following

online

refugee

http://www.peacewomen.org/assets/file/Resources/

Academic/disp_genderandpower_mclean_1999.pdf

Krause U. Analysis of empowerment of refugee women in

camps and settlements. J Intern Displac.

;4(1):29-52.

Yalim AC and Critelli F. Gender roles among Syrian

refugees in resettlement contexts: Revisiting

empowerment of refugee women and needs of

refugee men. Women’s Stud Int Forum. 2023;

:102670.

Adichie GA. The Experiences of Internally Displaced

Women and Girls in Nigeria and the Implementation

of the WPS Agenda. Indiana J Humanit Soc Sci.

;2(7):29-34.

Klugman J and Ortiz E. Key Development Challenges

Around Internal Displacement: Published online

https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/4037

/pdf/Key-Development

Challenges-Around-Internal-Displacement-A

Gender-Perspective.pdf

Jensen MA. Gender-Based Violence in Refugee Camps:

Understanding and Addressing the Role of Gender

in the Experiences of Refugees. Inq J. 2019;11(02).

Accessed

January

,

http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1757/gen

der-based-violence-in-refugee-camps

understanding-and-addressing-the-role-of-gender

in-the-experiences-of-refugees

Hutchinson, Waterhouse, March-McDonald, Neal,

Ingham. Understanding Early Marriage and

Transactional Sex In the Context of Armed Conflict:

Protection at a Price. Int Perspect Sex Reprod

Health. 2016;42(1):45.

Aliyu MB and Abubakar AD. Exploring the implications

of forced displacement on sustainable development

goals in Nigeria: Evidence from the lived experience

of internally displaced persons in Maiduguri -

Nigeria. Int J Intellect Discourse. 2022;5(1):293

Marlow HM, Kunnuji M, Esiet A, Bukoye F and Izugbara

C. The Sexual and Reproductive Health Context of

an Internally Displaced Persons’ Camp in

Northeastern Nigeria: Narratives of Girls and Young Women. Front Reprod Health. 2022;

:779059.

UNHCR. Driven by Desperation: Transactional Sex as a

Survival Strategy in Port-Au-Prince IDP Camps.

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees;

:27.

https://www.humanitarianresponse.info/sites/www.

humanitarianresponse.info/files/documents/files/Ha

iti%20UNHCR%20Study%20on%20Transactional

%20Sex.pdf

Ivanova O, Rai M and Kemigisha E. A Systematic Review

of Sexual and Reproductive Health Knowledge,

Experiences and Access to Services among

Refugee, Migrant and Displaced Girls and Young

Women in Africa. Int J Environ Res Public Health.

;15(8):1583.

Jacobson L, Regan A, Heidari S and Onyango MA.

Transactional sex in the wake of COVID-19: sexual

and reproductive health and rights of the forcibly

displaced.

Sex

;28(1):1822493.

Reprod

Health

Matters.

UNDP. Human Development Report 2021/2022 -

Uncertain Times, Unsettled Lives: Shaping Our

Future in a Transforming World. United Nations

Development Programme; 2022:320.

UNHCR. Internally Displaced People. UNHCR Nigeria.

Published 2023. Accessed January 11, 2023.

https://www.unhcr.org/ng/idps

UNHCR. Refugees by Country 2023. Refugees by

Country 2023. Published 2023. Accessed January 6,

https://worldpopulationreview.com/country

rankings/refugees-by-country

UNHCR. Uganda - Refugee statistics February 2021:

Nakivale. Published online 2021.

Mercer LD, Lu F and Proctor JL. Sub-national levels and

trends in contraceptive prevalence, unmet need, and

demand for family planning in Nigeria with survey

uncertainty. BMC Public Health. 2019;19(1):1752.

Bakesiima R, Cleeve A and Larsson E. Modern

contraceptive use among female refugee adolescents

in northern Uganda: prevalence and associated

factors. Reprod Health. 2020;17(1):67.

International Alert, UNICEF Nigeria. Bad Blood:

Perceptions of Children Born of Conflict-Related

Sexual Violence and Women and Girls Associated

with Boko Haram in Northeast Nigeria.

International

Alert/UNICEF Nigeria; 2016.

https://www.unicef.org/nigeria/media/1331/file/Ni

geria-bad-blood.pdf.pdf

Ajayi TF. Women, Internal Displacement and the Boko

Haram Conflict: Broadening the Debate. Afr Secur.

;13(2):171-194.

Okigb CC, McCarraher DR, Chen M and Pack A. Risk

Factors for Transactional Sex among Young

Females in Post- Conflict Liberia. Afr J Reprod

Health. 2014;18(3):133-141.

Reis M Ramiro L, Matos MG de and Diniz JA. The effects

of sex education in promoting sexual and

reproductive health in Portuguese university

students. Procedia - Soc Behav Sci. 2011; 29:477

Refbacks

  • There are currently no refbacks.